Rethinking Amnesties and the Function of the Domestic Judge

Michail Vagias

doi:10.31078/consrev915

Rethinking Amnesties and the Function of the Domestic Judge

Michail Vagias

Abstract

The award of amnesties or pardons has been used time and again to facilitate the attainment of peace after a civil war. However, this practice has been condemned by human rights and other international bodies as incompatible with the duty of states under human rights law to investigate, prosecute and punish human rights violations and the victims’ rights of access to justice and to the truth. Due to this incompatibility, the function of the domestic (constitutional) judge is none other than to strike down amnesty legislation as null and void. This appears to be the prevailing narrative in contemporary human rights discourse. The present contribution takes issue with this narrative. It takes the position that the international effect of regional human rights jurisprudencehas been to condition, as opposed to wholesale outlaw, the use of amnesties as a post-conflict peace-building tool. It defends the view that while blanket amnesties are increasingly considered incompatible with victims’ rights today, that does not mean that all amnesties are prohibited. From this perspective, this article argues that the proper function of domestic constitutional courts in the performance of the constitutionality control of amnesty legislation should take a different shape; instead of querying whether to strike down or to uphold amnesty legislation in its entirety, Constitutional Courts should condition amnesties to criteria – such as their position as part of a broader transitional justice package including truth telling and compensation – and monitor their implementation on a case-by-case basis.

Keywords

Amnesties; Human Rights; Incompatibility; National Judge

Full Text:

PDF

References

Amparo Decision, Decision No. 408-2020 (El Salvador Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court 2020).

“Agreements Relating to Algerian Independence.” International Legal Materials 1, no. 2 (October 1962): 214-30, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020782900061234

“Asamblea aprueba ley que permitirá a sobrevivientes de la masacre de El Mozote recibir compensación económica [Assembly Approves Law that Will Allow Survivors of the El Mozote Massacre to Receive Financial Compensation].” National Assembly of El Salvador, published June 29, 2022. https://www. asamblea.gob.sv/node/12256.

Betancur, Belisario, Reinaldo Figueredo Planchart, and Thomas Buergenthal. “From Madness to Hope: The 12-Year War in El Salvador: Report of the Commission on the Truth for El Salvador.” Report, El Salvador, 1993.

Canby, Peter. “Is El Salvador’s President Trying to Shut Down a Hearing on the Infamous El Mozote Massacre?” The New Yorker, published September 10, 2021. https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/is-el-salvadors-president- trying-to-shut-down-a-hearing-on-the-infamous-el-mozote-massacre.

Carnegie Foundation. The Treaties of Peace 1919-1923, Vol. II. New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1924.

Carvalho Veçoso, Fabia Fernandes. “The Inter-American View on Amnesties: Human Rights Absolutism?” Revista Derecho del Estado 35 (May 2015): 3, https://doi.org/10.18601/01229893.n35.01.

CAT/C/GC/2. “General Comment No. 2 (2007) on the Implementation of Article 2 by States Parties.”

CAT/C/GC/3. “General Comment No. 3 (2012) on the Implementation of Article 14 by States Parties.”

Chigara, Ben. Amnesty in International Law: The Legality Under International Law of National Amnesty Laws. Harlow: Longman, 2002.

Communication 431/12, Kwoyelo v. Uganda (Inter-African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights 2018).

Concurring Opinion of Judge Vucinic, Margus v. Croatia Appl., No. 4455/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2014).

Contreras et al. v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2011).

Decision on Admissibility, Dah v. France, Appl., No. 13113/03 (European Court of Human Rights 2003).

Decision on Challenge to Jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty, Prosecutor v. Kallon and Kamara, SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E) and SCSL-2004-16-AR72(E) (Special Court for Sierra Leone).

Decision on Ieng Sary’s Appeal against the Closing Order, Prosecutor v. Sary, 002/19 09-2007-ECCC/OCIJ (PTC75) (Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 2011).

Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts. “Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1).” OHCHR, adopted June 08, 1977. https://www.ohchr. org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/protocol-additional-geneva- conventions-12-august-1949-and.

DPLF. “Three Years After the Annulment of the Amnesty Law: Victims of the Armed Conflict Defeat a Renewed Attempt at Codifying Impunity in El Salvador, but the Fight is Far from Over.” Accessed September 3, 2022. https://www.dplf.org/en/news/three-years-after-annulment-amnesty-law- victims-armed-conflict-defeat-renewed-attempt-codifying.

Ellacuria S.J. et al. v. El Salvador, Case No. 10.488 (Inter-American Commission of Human Rights 1999).

E.G. v. Moldova Appl., No. 37882/13 (European Court of Human Rights 2021).

“El Salvador, Supreme Court Judgment on the Unconstitutionality of the Amnesty Law.” ICRC Casebook. Accessed September 3, 2022. https://casebook.icrc. org/case-study/el-salvador-supreme-court-judgment-unconstitutionality- amnesty-law.

“El Salvador: Decreto No. 486 de 1993 - Ley de amnistía general para la consolidación de la paz [General Amnesty Law for the Consolidation of Peace].” UNHCR, published March 20, 1993. https://www.refworld.org/ docid/3e50fd334.html.

Franco-Algerian Évian Accords, ‘Agreement Relating to the Algerian Independence’, Évian, 18 March 1962, 1 ILM (1962).

Gargarella, Roberto. “Democracy’s Demands.” American Journal of International Law Unbound 112 (May 2018): 73-78, https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2018.33.

Gavron, Jessica. “Amnesties in the Light of Developments in International Law and the Establishment of the International Criminal Court.” International & Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 1 (January 2002): 98, https://doi. org/10.1093/iclq/51.1.91.

Hugo Rodríguez v. Uruguay, Communication No. 322/1988, UN Doc. CCPR/ C/51/D/322/1988 (9 August 1994).

Human Rights Committee Resolution 2004/72 Impunity, E/CN.4/RES/2004/7 (21 April 2004).

Human Rights Committee Resolution 2005/81 Impunity, E/CN.4/RES/2005/81 (21 April 2005).

Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 20, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/ Rev.1 at 30 (1994).

Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 31, CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.1326 (26 May 2004).

Human Rights Resolution 2005/81 Impunity, E/CN.4/RES/2005/81 (21 April 2005).

“IACHR and UN Expert Reject Legislative Reforms that Remove Judges and Prosecutors in El Salvador and Calls for Respect of Guarantees for Judicial Independence.” OAS, published September 7, 2021. https://cejil.org/en/press- releases/reform-to-the-judicial-career-law-threatens-el-mozote-investigation- inter-american-court-requests-information-from-the-salvadoran-state/.

“IACHR Hails Determination of Unconstitutionality of Amnesty Law in El Salvador.” OAS, published July 25, 2016. https://www.oas.org/en/iachr/ media_center/PReleases/2016/098.asp.

Joint Concurring Opinion of Judges Sikuta, Wojtyczek and Vehabovic, Margus v. Croatia Appl. No. 4455/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2014).

Joint Separate Opinion of Judges Ziemele, Berro-Lefevre and Karakas, Margus v. Croatia Appl. No. 4455/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2014).

Joint Separate Opinion Spielmann, Power-Forde and Nussberger, Margus v. Croatia Appl., No. 4455/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2014).

Judgment on Merits and Reparations, Gelman v. Uruguay (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2011).

Judgment on Merits, Chumbipuma Acquirre et al. v. Peru (Barrios Altos) (Inter- American Court of Human Rights 2001).

Judgment on Merits, Reparations and Costs in Massacres of El Mozote and surrounding areas v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2012).

Judgment on Merits, Velásquez-Rodríguez v. Honduras (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 1988).

Judgment on Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Gomez- Lund et al. v. Brazil (Guerrilha do Araguaia) (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2010).

Judgment on Reparations and Costs, Barrios Altos v. Peru (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2001).

Judgment on Reparations and Costs, La Cantuta v. Peru (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2006).

Judgment on Unconstitutionality 4-2013/145-2013 (Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court of El Salvador 2016).

Kennedy, David. The Dark Sides of Virtue: Reassessing International Humanitarianism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Ki-Moon, Ban. “Remarks to Security Council Meeting on the Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Settings.” Report, United Nations, 2012.

Koskenniemi, Martti. The Politics of International Law. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2011.

“Letter from the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation (Ukraine).” UNSCR, published February 17, 2015. http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/2202.

Makuchyan and Minasyan v. Azerbaijan and Hungary Appl., No. 17247/13 (European Court of Human Rights 2020).

Malarino, Ezequiel. “Judicial Activism, Punitivism and Supranationalisation: Illiberal and Antidemocratic Tendencies of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.” International Criminal Law Review 12, no. 4 (January 2012): 686, https://doi.org/10.1163/15718123-01204003.

Mallinder, Louise and Kieran McEvoy. “Rethinking Amnesties: Atrocity, Accountability and Impunity in Post-Conflict Societies.” Contemporary Social Science 6, no. 1 (February 2011): 118, https://doi.org/10.1080/17450144.2010.5 34496.

Mallinder, Louise. “Can Amnesties and International Justice Be Reconciled?” The International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 2 (July 2007): 214, https:// doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijm020.

Margus v. Croatia, Appl., No. 4455/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2014).

Masacre Las Hojas v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 1993).

Micus, Annelen. The Inter-American Human Rights System as a Safeguard for Justice in National Transitions: From Amnesty Laws to Accountability in Argentina, Chile and Peru. Leiden: Brill, 2015.

Minow, Martha. “Do Alternative Justice Mechanisms Deserve Recognition in International Criminal Law? Truth Commissions, Amnesties and Complementarity at the International Criminal Court.” Harvard International Law Journal 60, no. 1 (March 2019): 3, https://harvardilj.org/.

Monitoring Compliance with Judgment, Order of the Court, Barrios Altos v. Peru (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2005).

Monsenor Oscar Arnulfo Romero and Galdamez v. El Salvador, No. 11.481 (Inter- American Commission of Human Rights 1999).

Morales, Felipe González. “The Progressive Development of the International Law of Transitional Justice: The Role of the Inter-American System.” In The Role of Courts in Transitional Justice, edited by Jessica Almqvist and Carlos Espósito, 41-65. London: Routledge, 2013.

“More Attempts to Add Roadblocks on Road to Justice in El Mozote Case.” El Salvador Perspectives, published April 19, 2021. https://www. elsalvadorperspectives.com/2021/04/more-attempts-to-add-roadblocks-on- road.html.

Parada Cea et al. v. El Salvador, No. 10.480 (Inter-American Commission of Human Rights 1999).

Parker, Adolfo. “Draft Amnesty Law of December 2018.” Accessed September 3, 2022. https://www.dplf.org/sites/default/files/documento_dr._rodolfo_parker_ comision_ad_hoc_amnistia_1902219_0.pdf.

Pion-Berlin, David. “To Prosecute or to Pardon? Human Rights Decisions in the Latin American Southern Cone.” Human Rights Quarterly 16, no. 1 (February 1994): 105-130, https://doi.org/10.2307/762413.

Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Judgment Castro v. Peru (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2009).

Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, Judgment, Arellano v. Chile (Inter- American Court of Human Rights 2006).

Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Judgment IT-95-17/1-T (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 1998).

Prosecutor v. Gaddafi ICC-01/11-01/11-662 (International Criminal Court 2019).

Prosecutor v. Gaddafi ICC-01/11-01/11-695 (International Criminal Court 2020).

Prosecutor v. Kunarac, IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1, (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 2001).

Prosecutor v. Mucić and Others, Judgment IT-96-21-T (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 1998).

Provisional Measures Order, Massacres of El Mozote and Surrounding Areas v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2019).

“Reform to the Judicial Career Law Threatens El Mozote Investigation, Inter- American Court Requests Information from the Salvadoran State.” CEJIL, published September 20, 2021. https://cejil.org/en/press-releases/reform- to-the-judicial-career-law-threatens-el-mozote-investigation-inter-american- court-requests-information-from-the-salvadoran-state/.

Reisman, Michael. “The Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Chapter VI by the President of the IACHR.” Report, El Salvador, 1994.

“Resolution on Azerbaijan: The Ramil Safarov Case.” European Parliament, published September 13, 2012. https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/ popups/summary.do?id=1222822&t=d&l=en

“Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts.” Report, 2001.

Ricoeur, Paul. Memory, History, Forgetting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.

Rochac Hernández et al. v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2014).

Roht-Arriaza, Naomi. “On El Salvador’s 1981 El Mozote Massacre, President Bukele Sides with Impunity.” Just Security, published October 28, 2020. https://www.justsecurity.org/73089/on-el-salvadors-1981-el-mozote-massacre- president-bukele-sides-with-impunity/.

Separate Concurring Opinion of Judge Perrin de Brichambaut, Prosecutor v. Gaddafi ICC-01/11-01/11-662-Anx. (International Criminal Court 2019).

Serrano-Cruz sisters v. El Salvador (Inter-American Court of Human Rights 2005).

Shelton, Dinah. Remedies in International Human Rights Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.

Sieff, Kevin. “El Salvador Is Trying Suspects in the Notorious El Mozote Massacre. The Judge Is Demanding Crucial Evidence: U.S. Government Records.” Washington Post, published March 14, 2020. https://www. washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/el-salvador-mozote-trial- trump/2020/03/13/09d89632-64a5-11ea-8a8e-5c5336b32760story.html.

Tarbuk v. Croatia, Appl., No. 31360/10 (European Court of Human Rights 2012).

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). “Annual Report 1985-1986.” Report, United States, 1986.

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). “Annual Report No. 22/92.” Report, United States, 1992.

The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). “Annual Report No. 34/91.” Report, United States, 1991.

UN Commission on Human Rights, Human Rights Resolution 2004/72 Impunity, E/CN.4/RES/2004/7 (21 April 2004).

UN. Department of Public Information. “El Salvador Agreements: The Path to Peace.” United Nations Digital Library, published January 16, 1992. https:// digitallibrary.un.org/record/149499.

UN. Department of Public Information. “El Salvador Agreements: The Path to Peace.” United Nations Digital Library, published January 16, 1992. https:// digitallibrary.un.org/record/149499

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Rule of Law Tools for Post-Conflict States – Amnesties. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2009).

United Nations. “Report of the Secretary General to the UN Security Council, on the Establishment of a Tribunal for Sierra Leone.” Report, United Nations, 2000.

Yaman v. Turkey Appl., No. 32446/96 (European Court of Human Rights 2004).

DOI: https://doi.org/10.31078/consrev915